Definition of Parts of
Speech and it's Substances
Parts of speech is a
traditional term to describe different types of word which are used to form
sentences, such as noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition,
conjunction, and interjection. On the other hand, we can say that Parts of Speech are the divisions into which word are
classified according to their functions in a sentence.
a. Noun
Noun is as the name of a person, place, or thing. Nouns typically refer to people, animals, places, things, or
abstractions. Examples of nouns are teacher,
school, book, color, life, and truth.
Moreover, noun can be divided into three
categories:
1)
Common nouns and proper nouns
Noun that names a particular person, place, or thing is a
proper noun. Proper noun begins with a capital letter in writing. He
gives more clarification that a proper noun may include:
a)
Personal names (Mr. John Smith)
b)
Names of geographic units
such as countries, cities, rivers, etc. (Holland,
Paris).
c)
Names of nationalities and
religions (a Dutchman, Christianity).
d)
Names of holidays (Easter, Thanksgiving Day).
e)
Names of times units (Saturday, June).
f)
Words used for
personification-a thing or abstraction treated as a person (Nature, Liberty).
As
opposed to proper nouns, all other nouns are classified as common nouns such
as, man, country, and statue.
2)
Count nouns and noncount
nouns
A common noun can be count or noncount. Count nouns name
people, places, and things that you can count (one book, two books). Count
nouns can be singular or plural, and you can use an indefinite article (a, an) with them. Meanwhile, noncount
nount name things that you cannot count. For example, you can not count sunshine and oxygen. Noncount nouns are never plural, and you can not use
article a or an with them. Example of count nouns: book, person, idea and the example of noncount nouns: sunshine, oxygen, information.
3)
Gerunds
Words that end in –ing can be nouns. These nouns are
called gerunds. Because gerund is verb-ing that has function as a noun, gerund has role positions
as:
a)
Subject
It may
occur in the sentence of working all day made me tired. The position of working here is as the subject.
b)
Object
It may
occur in the sentence of I enjoy cooking. The position of “cooking”
is as the object of the sentence.
c)
Object of Preposition
It may
occur in the sentence of By studying hard, you will pass the
entrance test.
d)
Complement
It may
occur in the sentence of My hobby is singing.
e)
Passive Meaning
It may
occur in the sentence of the car needs cleaning.
b. Pronoun
A pronoun is a
word which may replace a noun or a noun phrase. A pronoun is used in place of a noun. In
this case, he also clarifies the term of “antecedent”. For example, I read the book. It was good. “It” here refers to the object pronoun of “book”, that
is, what we called as “antecedent”.
Table 1. the first style of pronoun
|
Pronoun Categories
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
|
Subject Pronoun
|
I
|
we
|
|
you
|
you
|
|
|
she, he, it
|
they
|
|
|
Object Pronoun
|
me
|
us
|
|
you
|
you
|
|
|
her, him, it
|
them
|
|
|
Possesive Pronouns
|
mine
|
ours
|
|
your
|
yours
|
|
|
hers, his
|
theirs
|
|
|
Possesive Adjective
|
my name
|
our names
|
|
your name
|
your names
|
|
|
her, his, its name
|
their names
|
From the table above, it can be emphasized that
in constructing possessive pronoun we do not need to attach noun, for example
in the sentence That book is mine. On the contradiction,
possessive adjectives are followed immediately by a noun; they do not stand
alone. For example, My book is here. Your books are over there.
Table 2. the second style of pronoun
|
|
Pronouns
|
|
Personal Pronouns
|
I, me, you, he, him, she, her, it, we, us, they, them (She
gave it to them. They got it from her.)
|
|
Possessive Pronouns
|
My, mine, your, yours, her, hers, his, its, our, ours, their,
theirs (Let’s study at your house. Mine is too
noisy.)
|
|
Demonstrative Pronouns
|
this, that, these, those (I love this picture, but
I don’t like those.)
|
|
Interrogative Pronouns
|
who, whom, whose, which, what (Who went to the
movies with you? Which movie did you see?)
|
|
Relative Pronouns
|
who, whom, whose, which, what (George, who is my best
friend, is a dog.)
|
|
Indefinite Pronouns
|
all, another, any, anyone, anybody, anything, both, each,
either, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, neither, nobody, none, no
one, nothing, one, several, some, somebody, someone, something. (Everyone
here speaks several languages.)
|
|
Reflexive Pronouns
|
myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves,
themselves (He hurt himself. They painted the house themselves.)
|
|
Reciprocal Pronouns
|
Each other, one another (They promised to take care of each
other.)
|
c. Adjective
An adjective is a word used with a noun or other substantive as a
modifier to describe or define it. An adjective describes the
thing, quality, state, or action which a noun refers to. For example, black in a black hat is an adjective. In English, adjectives usually have
following properties:
1)
They can be used before a
noun, e.g. a heavy bag.
2)
They can be used after be,
become, seem, etc, as complements, e.g. the
bag is heavy.
3)
They can be used after a noun
as a complement, e.g. These books make the bag heavy.
4)
They can be modified by an
adverb, e.g. a very heavy bag.
5)
They can be used in a comparative
or superlative form, e.g. The bag seems heavier now.
d. Adverb
Adverb is a
word that describes or adds to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, another
adverb, or a sentence, and which answers such questions as how?, where?, or when?.
In English many adverbs have ly-
ending. For example, adverbs of manner e.g. carefully,
slowly, adverbs of place e.g. here, there, locally, and
adverbs of time e.g. now, hourly, yesterday.
Categories of adverb as follows:
1)
The primary adverbs
Primary
adverbs have no suffixes or other markings to distinguish them from the other
parts of speech and most of them are not inflected for comparison, and many of
them are monosyllabic. The following are primary adverbs: hence, here, how, never,
not, since, soon, then, there, thus, twice, too, where, whence.
2)
Adverbs classified as to
meaning
When
classified as to meaning, most adverbs can be put into the categories of time,
place, manner, and degree.
a) Adverbs
of time
It may
express present time (now, immediately, instantly, today); past
time (ago, already, before, lately, then, yesterday); future
time (afterwards, by and by, hereafter, soon, tomorrow); duration of time (always, continuously, ever, incessantly, never, still, while); or frequency of time (again and again, daily, frequently, often, periodically, sometimes).
Adverbs of time usually modify verbs. They answer the question When? Or How long? Or How many times?
b) Adverbs
of place and direction
Adverbs
of place and direction may denote place where (above, below, near, here, there, where, upstairs); motion to (forward,
onward, hither, thither, whither); and motion from (away, hence, thence, whence). Adverbs of place usually modify
verbs. They answer the questions Where?
Or In what directions? Or From what direction? The following
illustrate:
(1)Adverbs
of place where: (a) I study here (b)
I have been there
(2) Adverbs
of direction: (a) Go hence (b) Turn left (c) Go away
c) Adverbs
of manner
Adverbs
of manner usually go with verbs of action, and they denote the way or manner of
the action expressed in the verb. Manner adverbs are the most numerous of
adverbs, largely because they can be made from simple and compound adjective
and from the present and past participles by adding the suffix –ly (gladly,
happily, carefully, gracefully, nicely, charmingly, etc). In addition to the derived adverbs, there are a
number of primary and simple adverbs which denote manner: better, fast, faster, hard, how, ill, loud,
so, straight, right, well, etc. Adverbs of manners usually
modify verbs. They answer the question How?
Or In what way? Look at the following
illustration: (1) Do it thus. (2) He
guessed right. (3) She works fast. (4) She entertains charmingly.
d) Adverbs
of degree
It
denotes measure or extent, and answer the question How much? Or How little?
Or To what extent? Many of the degree
adverbs are primary or flat adverbs (far,
just, little, more, very, too, altogether, all, quite,
enough, rather, almost), and many
of them are made from adjectives denoting measure or extent by the addition of
the suffix –ly (completely, barely, scarcely, partly, nearly). For example: (1) John is very tall. (2) He walks too
slowly. (3) I was almost asleep. (4)
This food is good enough for kings.
3)
Interrogative adverbs
They
are simple adverbs performing a dual function: they modify verbs, adjectives,
and adverbs, and introduce direct and indirect questions. When, where, why, how are the most common
interrogative adverbs used to inquire concerning time, place, manner, cause,
and degree.
Direct
Questions Indirect
Questions
Time: When
does he go? I
wonder when he is going.
Place: Where
are you? He
asked where I was.
Degree: How
old are you? I
must not tell how old I am.
Reason: Why
is he so downcast? He
will not tell me why he is
so
down cast
Manner: How
will they accomplish this? I should
like to know how
they
will accomplish this.
e.
Preposition
Preposition is
a word used with noun, pronoun, or gerund to link them grammatically to other
words. Or we can say that a preposition is a particle (word or a word-equivalent) used with a noun or pronoun
(and usually placed before it) to form a phrase, which phrase usually performs
the function of an adjective or an adverb. Moreover, Prepositions show relationship such as direction, time, location, or
ownership. Most prepositions are one word (of,
from, in, on), but some
prepositions are two words (next to,
because of, according to) or even
three words (in front of, in addition to).
f.
Conjunction
Conjunction is
a word which joins words, phrases, or clauses together, such as, but and when. Conjunctions connect
words and word groups and show the relationship between the connected elements.
He adds that there are four kinds of conjunctions:
1)
Coordinating conjunctions (and, but,
so, or, etc)
I
enjoy swimming in the ocean but not
in a pool.
2)
Correlative conjunctions (not only…but also, etc)
She
has lived not only in Vietnam but also in France.
3)
Subordinating conjunctions (because, when, if, etc.)
I
use my ATM card to get money because
ATMs are everywhere.
4)
Conjunctive adverbs (however, therefore, meanwhile,
etc.)
We were
enjoying the sunset at the beach. Meanwhile,
a thief was breaking into our car.
g.
Interjection
An interjection is
a word or phrase that express surprise or emotion. Interjections can be strong
or weak or interjection is a word such
as, ugh! Ghost! Wow!, which indicates an emotional state or attitude such as
delight, surprise, shock, and disgust, but which has no referential meaning. Since the interjection is simply some expression of
emotion or feeling usually occurring at the beginning of the sentence and does
not perform any grammatical function. This part of speech is not used in this
discussion of thesis.
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